Disturbed habitats locally reduce the signal of deep evolutionary history in functional traits of plants.

The functioning of present ecosystems reflects deep evolutionary history of locally cooccurring species if their functional traits show high phylogenetic signal (PS). However, we do not understand what drives local PS. We hypothesize that local PS is high in undisturbed and stressful habitats, either due to ongoing local assembly of species that maintained ancestral traits, or to past evolutionary maintenance of ancestral traits within habitat species-pools, or to both. We quantified PS and diversity of 10 traits within 6704 local plant communities across 38 Dutch habitat types differing in disturbance or stress. Mean local PS varied 50-fold among habitat types, often independently of phylogenetic or trait diversity. Mean local PS decreased with disturbance but showed no consistent relationship to stress. Mean local PS exceeded species-pool PS, reflecting nonrandom subsampling from the pool. Disturbance or stress related more strongly to mean local than to species-pool PS. Disturbed habitats harbour species with evolutionary divergent trait values, probably driven by ongoing, local assembly of species: environmental fluctuations might maintain different trait values within lineages through an evolutionary storage effect. If functional traits do not reflect phylogeny, ecosystem functioning might not be contingent on the presence of particular lineages, and lineages might establish evolutionarily novel interactions.

Anthropogenic threats to evolutionary heritage of angiosperms in the Netherlands through an increase in high-competition environments.

Present biodiversity comprises the evolutionary heritage of Earth's epochs. Lineages from particular epochs are often found in particular habitats, but whether current habitat decline threatens the heritage from particular epochs is unknown. We hypothesized that within a given region, humans threaten specifically habitats that harbor lineages from a particular geological epoch. We expect so because humans threaten environments that dominated and lineages that diversified during these epochs. We devised a new approach to quantify, per habitat type, diversification of lineages from different epochs. For Netherlands, one of the floristically and ecologically best-studied regions, we quantified the decline of habitat types and species in the past century. We defined habitat types based on vegetation classification and used existing ranking of decline of vegetation classes and species. Currently, most declining habitat types and the group of red-listed species are characterized by increased diversification of lineages dating back to Paleogene, specifically to Paleocene-Eocene and Oligocene. Among vulnerable habitat types with large representation of lineages from these epochs were sublittoral and eulittoral zones of temperate seas and 2 types of nutrient-poor, open habitats. These losses of evolutionary heritage would go unnoticed with classical measures of evolutionary diversity. Loss of heritage from Paleocene-Eocene became unrelated to decline once low competition, shade tolerance, and low proportion of non-Apiaceae were accounted for, suggesting that these variables explain the loss of heritage from Paleocene-Eocene. Losses of heritage from Oligocene were partly explained by decline of habitat types occupied by weak competitors and shade-tolerant species. Our results suggest a so-far unappreciated human threat to evolutionary heritage: habitat decline threatens descendants from particular epochs. If the trends persist into the future uncontrolled, there may be no habitats within the region for many descendants of evolutionary ancient epochs, such as Paleogene.

Amenazas Antropogénicas para la Herencia Evolutiva de las Angiospermas en los Países Bajos a partir del Incremento en los Ambientes de Competencia Elevada Resumen La biodiversidad actual abarca la herencia evolutiva de las épocas de la Tierra. Los linajes de épocas particulares se encuentran con frecuencia en hábitats particulares pero desconocemos si la declinación contemporánea de los hábitats amenaza a la herencia de una época en particular. Nuestra hipótesis supone que dentro de una región determinada, los humanos son una amenaza específica para los hábitats que albergan linajes de una época geológica particular. Suponemos esto pues los humanos amenazan a los ambientes y a los linajes que se diversificaron durante estas épocas. Diseñamos una nueva estrategia para cuantificar, por tipo de hábitat, la diversificación de los linajes de épocas distintas. Cuantificamos para los Países Bajos, una de las regiones mejor estudiada florística y ecológicamente, la declinación de los tipos de hábitat y de especies durante el siglo pasado. Definimos los tipos de hábitat con base en la clasificación de la vegetación y usamos las jerarquías existentes de la declinación de clases y especies de vegetación. Hoy en día, la mayoría de los tipos de hábitat en declinación y el grupo de especies en lista roja se caracterizan por la diversificación incrementada de los linajes que datan del Paleógeno, específicamente el Paleoceno-Eoceno y el Oligoceno. Entre los tipos de hábitat vulnerables con una gran representación de los linajes de estas épocas encontramos a la zona sublitoral e intermareal de los mares templados y dos tipos de hábitats abiertos con deficiencia de nutrientes. Estas pérdidas de linaje evolutivo pasarían desapercibidas con las medidas clásicas de la diversidad evolutiva. La pérdida de la herencia del Paleoceno-Eoceno dejó de estar relacionada con la declinación una vez que contabilizamos la baja competencia, la tolerancia a la sombra y la baja proporción de especies no pertenecientes a la familia Apiaceae, lo que sugiere que estas variables explican la pérdida de herencia del Paleoceno-Eoceno. La pérdida de herencia del Oligoceno estuvo explicada en parte por la declinación de los tipos de hábitat ocupados por competidores débiles y especies tolerantes a la sombra. Nuestros resultados sugieren una amenaza humana para la herencia evolutiva que todavía no ha sido apreciada: la declinación del hábitat amenaza a los descendientes de épocas particulares. Si en el futuro las tendencias siguen sin ser controladas, puede que no haya hábitats en la región para muchos de los descendientes evolutivos de épocas antiguas, como el Paleógeno.

Global trait-environment relationships of plant communities.

Plant functional traits directly affect ecosystem functions. At the species level, trait combinations depend on trade-offs representing different ecological strategies, but at the community level trait combinations are expected to be decoupled from these trade-offs because different strategies can facilitate co-existence within communities. A key question is to what extent community-level trait composition is globally filtered and how well it is related to global versus local environmental drivers. Here, we perform a global, plot-level analysis of trait-environment relationships, using a database with more than 1.1 million vegetation plots and 26,632 plant species with trait information. Although we found a strong filtering of 17 functional traits, similar climate and soil conditions support communities differing greatly in mean trait values. The two main community trait axes that capture half of the global trait variation (plant stature and resource acquisitiveness) reflect the trade-offs at the species level but are weakly associated with climate and soil conditions at the global scale. Similarly, within-plot trait variation does not vary systematically with macro-environment. Our results indicate that, at fine spatial grain, macro-environmental drivers are much less important for functional trait composition than has been assumed from floristic analyses restricted to co-occurrence in large grid cells. Instead, trait combinations seem to be predominantly filtered by local-scale factors such as disturbance, fine-scale soil conditions, niche partitioning and biotic interactions.

SaudiVeg ecoinformatics: Aims, current status and perspectives.

During the last decade many electronic databases of vegetation plots were established in many countries around the world. These databases contain valuable phytosociological information assisting both governmental and NGO (Non-governmental organizations) agencies to formulate strategies and on-ground plans to manage and protect nature resources. This paper provides an account on aims, current status and perspectives of building of a vegetation database for the Central Region (Najd) of Saudi Arabia - the founding element of the Saudi Vegetation Database (SVD). The data stored by the database are sample plots (vegetation relevés) collected according to the field techniques of the Braun-Blanquet approach (lists of taxa accompanied by semi-quantitative cover assessment), and are accompanied by general vegetation characteristics such as vegetation layering and cover, information on life-form of the recorded species, geographical coordinates, altitude, soil typology, topography and many more. More than 2900 vegetation-plot records (relevés) have so far been collected in the Najd region; of these more than 2000 have already been stored using the Turboveg database platform. These field records cover many habitats such as depressions, wadis (dry river beds), agricultural lands, sand dunes, sabkhas, and ruderal habitats. The ecological information collected in the database is currently the largest set of vegetation data collated into a database in the Middle East. These data are of great importance for biodiversity studies in Saudi Arabia, since the region is recording a loss of biodiversity at a fast rate due to environmental problems such as global warming and land-use changes. We envisage that this database would catalyze further data collection on vegetation of the entire Arabian Peninsula, and shall serve as one of the most important datasets for classification and mapping of the vegetation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Phylogenetically poor plant communities receive more alien species, which more easily coexist with natives.

Alien species can be a major threat to ecological communities, but we do not know why some community types allow the entry of many more alien species than do others. Here, for the first time, we suggest that evolutionary diversity inherent to the constituent species of a community may determine its present receptiveness to alien species. Using recent large databases from observational studies, we find robust evidence that assemblage of plant community types from few phylogenetic lineages (in plots without aliens) corresponds to higher receptiveness to aliens. Establishment of aliens in phylogenetically poor communities corresponds to increased phylogenetic dispersion of recipient communities and to coexistence with rather than replacement of natives. This coexistence between natives and distantly related aliens in recipient communities of low phylogenetic dispersion may reflect patterns of trait assembly. In communities without aliens, low phylogenetic dispersion corresponds to increased dispersion of most traits, and establishment of aliens corresponds to increased trait concentration. We conclude that if quantified across the tree of life, high biodiversity correlates with decreasing receptiveness to aliens. Low phylogenetic biodiversity, in contrast, facilitates coexistence between natives and aliens even if they share similar trait states.

Dispersal failure contributes to plant losses in NW Europe.

The ongoing decline of many plant species in Northwest Europe indicates that traditional conservation measures to improve the habitat quality, although useful, are not enough to halt diversity losses. Using recent databases, we show for the first time that differences between species in adaptations to various dispersal vectors, in combination with changes in the availability of these vectors, contribute significantly to explaining losses in plant diversity in Northwest Europe in the 20th century. Species with water- or fur-assisted dispersal are over-represented among declining species, while others (wind- or bird-assisted dispersal) are under-represented. Our analysis indicates that the 'colonization deficit' due to a degraded dispersal infrastructure is no less important in explaining plant diversity losses than the more commonly accepted effect of eutrophication and associated niche-based processes. Our findings call for measures that aim to restore the dispersal infrastructure across entire regions and that go beyond current conservation practices.

Less lineages - more trait variation: phylogenetically clustered plant communities are functionally more diverse.

Functional diversity within communities may influence ecosystem functioning, but which factors drive functional diversity? We hypothesize that communities assembled from many phylogenetic lineages show large functional diversity if assembly is random, but low functional diversity if assembly is controlled by interactions between species within lineages. We combined > 9000 descriptions of Dutch plant communities, a species-level phylogeny, and information on 16 functional traits (including eight dispersal traits). We found that all traits were conserved within lineages, but nevertheless communities assembled from many lineages showed a smaller variation in trait-states of most traits (including dispersal traits) than communities assembled from few lineages. Hence, within lineages, species are not randomly assembled into communities, contradicting Neutral Theory. In fact, we find evidence for evolutionary divergence in trait-states as well as present-day mutual exclusion among related, similar species, suggesting that functional diversity of communities increased due to past and present interactions between species within lineages.